Benjamin's Praxis Blog

Principles of Learning and Teaching PLT (5622)

The following are my study notes for the PLT exam, the outline is created using the Praxis official scope outline. Definitions and sample questions have been added. This outline is useful for keeping information organized, though the presentation here lacks polish, it tries to cover the most important theories and concepts.

Module 1: Students as learners

Major Theorists

Bandura

In his now famous 1960's study, preschool children were shown a video of an adult playing with a large inflatable ball called Bobo with either a friendly or aggressive play style. Children mimicked the play style they saw in the video, showing that children can learn from observation (modelling).
Albert Bandura is the Creator of Social (or Observational) Learning Theory which requires several steps:1. Attention - Attending to the lesson2. Retention - Remembering what was learned3. Reproduction - Trying out the skill or concept4. Motivation - Willingness to learn and ability to self-regulate behavior

Bruner

Known for the concepts: Discovery Learning and ScaffoldingDiscovery Learning:Teaching method that enable students to discover information by themselves or in groups. Distance learning falls in this category. Scaffolding Involves instructional supports (to the degree needed) provided to a student by an adult or a more capable peer in a learning situation. Often an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based on knowledge or past experiences . Example of Scaffolding: teacher reading a portion of the text and then asking the student to repeat the same sentence. Alternatively, it could be giving a student a hint or starting with gap fill exercises before moving on to independent production.
QuestionA teacher exposes students to a topic several times with increasing complexity throughout the school year. The new learning is put in the context of prior learning. By instructing students in this manner, the teacher best demonstrates an understanding of which of the following? A. Spiral curriculum B. Constructivist teaching C. Inquiry-based learning D. Interdisciplinary learningCorrect Answer: AOption (A) is correct. Based on Jerome Bruner's cognitive theory, spiral curriculum exposes students to a topic or theme several times with increasing complexity and in context to the prior experience. This approach is based on the idea that a student's learning ability changes over time and learning should not be in isolation, but rather build on one another.

Dewey

John Dewey established Experiential Education = Learning Through Experience - Considered the father of progressive education practice that promotes individuality, free activity, and learning through experiences, such as project-based learning cooperative learning, arts-integration activities, and teacher reflective practices. Learning Through Experience (Experiential Education): Created by John Dewey. He theorized that school is primarily a social institution and a process of living, not an institution to prepare for future living. He believed that schools should teach children to be problem solvers by helping them learn to think as opposed to helping them learn only the content of a lesson and that students should be active decision makers in their education.

Piaget

A cognitive theorist who established the theory of Stages of Cognitive Development [Cognitive Development Theory] which suggested that there are four stages of cognitive development, including:1 Sensorimotor2 Peroperational3 Concrete Operational4 Formal Operational
Sensorimotor First of four stages of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory. Occurs from birth to 2 years and the behavior includes:*Explore the world through senses and motor skills.
Preoperational Second of four stages of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory. Occurs from 2 years to 7 years and the behavior includes:*Believe that others view the world as they do.*Can use symbols to represent other things.
Concrete Operational Third of four stages of Piaget's theory. Occurs from 7 years to 11 years and the behavior includes:*Reason logically in familiar situations.*Can conserve and reverse operations.
*Abstract thought starts in junior high school. Elementary students have concrete thoughts about concrete objects.
Formal Operational Fourth of four stages of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory. Occurs from age 11 and up. The behavior includes:*Can reason in hypothetical situations and use abstract thought.
Accommodation Responding to a new event or object by changing an existing scheme or creating a new scheme. In other words, when students begin learning about a completely new topic, they create a mental file and place the new information in it. Piaget called this process accommodation and it is more difficult than assimilation.
Assimilation Responding to a new event or object that is consistent with an existing scheme. In other words, when students already know something about a topic, the new information is added to that mental file, or schema in a revision process (according to Piaget).
A teacher observes that a student is able to do the following:Solve problems with hands-on manipulatives in a logical fashionUnderstand laws of conservation and is able to classify and seriateUnderstand reversibility
QuestionAccording to Piaget, which of the following stages of cognitive development has the student reached? A. Sensorimotor B. Preoperational C. Concrete operational D. Formal operationalCorrect Answer: COption (C) is correct. Concrete operational is the third stage of cognitive development, which includes being able to solve concrete problems in a logical fashion and to understand the laws of conservation.

Vygotsky

Best known for his theory of the Zone of Proximal Development which suggests that students learn best in social context in which a more able adult or peer teaches the student something he or she could not learn on his or her own. Credited for the Social Development Theory of Learning in which he suggested that social interaction influences cognitive development. Zone of Proximal Development Theory A key concept in Vygotsky's theory of learning which suggests that students learn best in a social context in which a more-able adult or peer teaches the student something he or she could not learn on his or her own.

Vgotsky's Zone of Proximal development

Kohlberg

Lawrence Kohlberg Created Theory of Moral Development Has 3 levels with 2 stages in each level:*Level 1, Pre-conventional (Stage 1, Obedience & Punishment / Stage 2, Individualism, Instrumentalism, & Exchange)*Level 2, Conventional (Stage 3, Good Boy, Good Girl / Stage 4, Law & Order)*Level 3, Post-Convectional (Stage 5, Social Contract / Stage 6, Principled Conscience)
Pre-Conventional Level (Moral Development) Elementary students are generally at this level in which some authority figure's threat or application of punishment inspires obedience.
Social Orientation Stages are:1. Obedience and punishment2. Individualism, instrumentalism, and exchangeAge Range = Birth to 9
Conventional Level (Moral Development) This level is found in society.Social Orientation Stages are:3. "Good boy/good girl" (seeking to do what will gain the approval of peers or others)4. Law and order (abiding the law and responding to obligations
Age Range = 9-20
Post-Conventional Level (Moral Development) Third of three levels of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory (includes stages 5 & 6 of social orientation). According to Kohlberg, this level is rarely achieved by the majority of adults.
Social Orientation Stages are:5. Social contract (shows an understanding of social mutuality and genuine interest in the welfare of others)6. Principled conscience (based on respect for the universal principles and the requirements of individual conscience)
Age Range = 20+ or maybe never

Question: According to the second stage of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, which of the following is true of students who exhibit characteristics of preconventional moral development? A. They behave according to personally developed moral guidelines. B. They seek to obtain the approval of others. C. They believe in acting in their own best interests. D. They abide by the law and respond to the obligation of duty.
Correct Answer: C They believe in acting in their own best interests.Option (C) is correct. The main characteristic of Kohlberg's preconventional moral development is that students believe in acting in their own best interests.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral development

Ebbinghaus

From 1880 to 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus ran a limited, incomplete study on himself and published his hypothesis in 1885 as Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. Ebbinghaus studied the memorisation of nonsense syllables, such as "WID" and "ZOF" (CVCs or Consonant–Vowel–Consonant) by repeatedly testing himself after various time periods and recording the results. He plotted these results on a graph creating what is now known as the "forgetting curve".
Spaced repetition decreases the forgetting rate and creates longer lasting memories. This is one of the most useful things for any educator or student to understand.

Bloom

Benjamin Bloom created a Taxonomy of learning domains This theory states that there are 3 learning domains (e.g. cognitive, performance or psychomotor, and affective), and it impacts the way educators write lesson objectives, plan learning activities, and assess student performance. The cognitive domain of Bloom's Taxonomy (knowledge) involves the mind and skills or strategies one uses and is organized into six levels from lowest order to highest (e.g. knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Cognitive Domain1 Knowledge: To recall information or data; key words: defines, lists, locates, recites, states. 2 Comprehension: To understand meaning of instruction and problems; key words: confirms, describes, discusses, explains, matches. 3 Application: To use a concept in a new situation; key words: applies builds, constructs, produces, reports 4 Analysis: To separate concepts into parts; key words: analyzes, builds, constructs, produces, reports.5 Synthesis: To build a pattern from diverse elements; key words: composes, designs, hypothesizes, implements, revises 6 Evaluation To make judgments; key words: assesses, concludes, critiques, justifies, solves
Performance or Psychomotor DomainAKA: Skills - Bloom's Taxonomy's domain which involves manual or physical skills one uses, which are divided into seven levels (e.g. perception, set, guided responses, mechanism, complex overt responses, adaptation, origination). Seven levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Performance [Skills] Domain 1 Perception: To use senses to guide motor activity; key words: chooses, describes, identifies, selects2 To be ready to act; key words: begins, moves, proceeds, shows, states 3 Guided responses: To use trial and error, imitation to learn (early stage); key words: copies, traces, follows, reproduces, replicates 4 Mechanism: To respond in a habitual way with movements performed with some confidence and proficiency (intermediate stage); key words: assembles, calibrates, displays, manipulates 5 Complex Overt Responses: To perform complex movement patterns skillfully (skillful stage); key words (same as mechanism, but adverbs or adjectives are added to indicate proficiency): assembles quickly, calibrates accurately, displays proficiently, manipulates quickly and accurately .6 Adaption: To use well-developed skills and be able to modify to fit special requirements; key words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, revises 7. Origination: To create new movement patterns to fit a specific problem or situation;
Affective Domain: AKA: Attitude - The third of three domains in Bloom's Taxonomy. It has five levels (e.g. receiving phenomena, responding to phenomena, valuing, organization, internalizing values). 1 Receiving PhenomenaTo be aware, to have selected attention; key words: asks follows, gives, locates, uses 2 Responding to PhenomenaTo actively participate; key words: answers, discusses, helps, tells3 ValuingTo determine worth; key words: demonstrates, differentiates, explains, invites, joins4 Organization To organize values into priorities; key words: arranges, alters, modifies, relates, synthesizes 5 Internalizing Values To control behavior using own value system; key words: acts, discriminates, listens, modifies, verifies

Learning Goal 1. Students will create an original piece of art using their favorite colors and share it with the class. The first learning goal is associated with the affective and psychomotor domains because it describes creating something, which is in the psychomotor domain, and using favorite colors is in the affective domain. 2. Students will label the states and their capitals on a map of the United States.The second learning goal is associated with the cognitive domain because it includes recalling and matching data through cognitive skills. 3. Students will be able to solve classroom conflicts through discussions and role play.The third learning goal is associated with the affective and psychomotor domains because solving conflict through active discussion is an affective domain activity, and acting out solutions in role-play situations is a psychomotor activity.
Question Which of the following questions best promotes the highest level of student thinking skills? A. Who are the main characters in the story? B. How are the two characters similar? C. Why do you think the character’s actions were justified? D. Can you provide an example of characterization?Correct Answer: COption (C) is correct. Using “Why do you think...?” requires students to evaluate the character’s actions. Evaluating is on the high end of Bloom’s taxonomy.
Question A second-grade teacher is planning a unit on insects. Which of the following objectives for the unit best addresses the psychomotor domain? A. Students will identify the parts of an ant's anatomy and the roles within an ant colony. B. Students will summarize the stages of metamorphosis in a butterfly. C. Students will describe the differences between a butterfly and a moth. D. Students will construct a cocoon using thread and white paste.Correct Answer: DOption (D) is correct. Students use the psychomotor domain when creating the cocoon because it requires the use of motor skills.


Question A second-grade teacher is planning a unit on insects. Which of the following objectives for the unit best addresses the psychomotor domain? A. Students will identify the parts of an ant's anatomy and the roles within an ant colony. B. Students will summarize the stages of metamorphosis in a butterfly. C. Students will describe the differences between a butterfly and a moth. D. Students will construct a cocoon using thread and white paste.
Correct Answer: DOption (D) is correct. Students use the psychomotor domain when creating the cocoon because it requires the use of motor skills.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

Erikson [In sample tests but not included in the Praxis outline].

Created eight stages of human development. He suggested that there are eight stages of human development, which are based on a crisis or conflict that a person resolves.1 Infancy StageTrust vs. Mistrust is crisis or conflict -- key event = feeding -- age range: 0-12 Toddler StageAutonomy vs. Doubt is crisis or conflict -- key event = toilet training -- age range: 1-23 Early Childhood StageInitiative vs. Guilt is the crisis/conflict -- key event = independence - age range: 2-64 Elementary & Middle School StageCompetence vs. Inferiority is crisis or conflict -- key event = school -- age range: 6-12
Erikson’s stages place elementary age students in the industry versus inferiority stage, which says that to encourage industry, students need to feel successful and work at their level. Students are given assignments on the basis of their ability levels and provided with frequent opportunities for success.
5 Adolescence StageIdentity vs. Role Confusion is the crisis - key event is sense of identity - age range 12-186 Young Adulthood StageIntimacy vs. Isolation is crisis or conflict - key event = intimate relationships - age range: 18-407 Middle Adulthood Stage Generavity vs. Stagnation is crisis or conflict -- key event = supporting the next generation - age range: 40-65 8 Late Adulthood Stage Integrity vs. Despair is crisis or conflict = reflection & acceptance -- age range: 65-death

Erik Erikson Stage Theory

Bronfenbrenner

known for his ecological systems theory It identifies five environmental systems with which an individual interacts.


Peterson 1980

Biopsychosocial model

Maslow [Not included in the Praxis outline but has come up in sample tests].

Abraham Maslow established the Hierarchy of Needs Theory in which certain lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs can be met. Abraham Maslow theorized that there are five levels of need and the higher needs cannot be met until certain lower needs are satisfied, as follows:Level 1. PhysiologicalLevel 2. SafetyLevel 3. Love & BelongingLevel 4. EsteemLevel 5. Self-Actualization Physiological First of five levels listed in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. These very basic needs include air, water, food, sleep, & sex.Safety Second of five levels listed in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. These needs help us establish stability & consistency in a chaotic world, such as a secure home & family. Safety needs sometimes motivate people to be religious, ensuring the promise of safety after we die. Love & BelongingThird of five levels in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. This level of the hierarchy occurs when people need to belong to groups: churches, schools, clubs, gangs, families, and so on. People need to be needed at this level.EsteemFourth of five levels in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. This level results from competence or the mastery of the task and the ensuing attention & recognition received from others. Self-Actualization Fifth of five levels listed in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. People who have achieved the first four levels can maximize their potential. They seek knowledge, peace, oneness with the higher power, self-fulfillment, and so on.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs starts with basic physiological needs—food and shelter, then safety, followed by a feeling of belonging.Students are encouraged to eat if hungry, provided with a safe environment, and made to feel accepted in the classroom.

Carol Gilligan [May not be tested here as not included in the Praxis outline].

Created Stages of the Ethic of Care which questions the male-centered personality psychology of Freud and Erikson, as well as Kohlberg's male-centered stages of moral development. She proposed the following stage theory of the moral development of women: pre-conventional stage, conventional, and pot-conventional. Pre-Conventional Stage: [Goal: Individual Survival ]Conventional Stage:[Goal: Self-Sacrifice is Goodness ]Post-Conventional Stage [Goal: Principle of Nonviolence ]

Maria Montessori [May not be tested here as not included in the Praxis outline]

Established the theory "Follow the Child". Believed there are 3 learning stages and that childhood is divided into four stages that have six year intervals in each stage. She also believed that adolescence can be divided into two sub-groups.Learning Stages of Follow the Child 1. Introduce a concept by lecture, lesson, experience, book read-aloud, and so on.2. Process the information and develop an understanding of the concept through work, experimentation, and creativity.3. "Knowing" - possessing an understanding of something that is demonstrated by ability to pass a test with confidence, teach the concept to another, or express understanding with ease.

B.F. Skinner

Behavioral theorist best known for his theory of Operant Conditioning which is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in observable behavior. His work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. Skinner introduced the term reinforcement. Reinforcement makes a behavior more likely. Positive reinforcement provides a rewarding consequence, negative reinforcement removes an adverse stimulus.Punishment weakens behavior. Positive punishment involves applying an unpleasant stimulus. Negative punishment takes away a potentially rewarding stimulus (taking away points).Punishment causes increased aggression, creates fear and the behavior can return when punishment is no longer present.Schedules of reinforcement also matter.https://www.simplypsychology.org/schedules-reinforcement.jpg?ezimgfmt=rs:595x446/rscb11/ng:webp/ngcb11

Major Concepts

Metacognition

Thinking about your thinking processes.
Which of the following statements accurately describes the impact of metacognition on the learning of elementary students? A. Students become aware of their use of cognitive strategies as early as two years old. B. Students naturally notice how the use of effective cognitive strategies leads to success. C. Students benefit from receiving explicit instruction on when to use cognitive strategies. D. Students best comprehend cognitive strategies when they are introduced to them in middle school.Correct Answer: COption (C) is correct. Students in second through sixth grades do not automatically acquire metacognitive knowledge, but they respond to explicit instruction.
QuestionWhich of the following questions during a reading lesson best fosters metacognition in elementary students? A. Which reading strategies did you try using? B. How does the character solve the problem? C. Why does the main character get upset? D. What might happen next in the story?Correct Answer: AOption (A) is correct. This question requires the students to use metacognition, in that students must think about their own thinking or use of strategies and also incorporate reflection.

Schema

A concept in the mind about events, scenarios, actions, or objects that have been acquired from past experience. The mind loves organization and must find previous events or experiences with which to associate the information, or the information may not be learned.

Transfer

Students' ability to apply a lesson learned in one situation to a new situation. Example: A student reads the word milk in a book about cows and then successfully reads the word milk in a parent's note on the counter. A transfer may be positive or negative. Positive TransferOccurs when something is learned at one point that facilitates learning or performance in another situation.Negative TransferOccurs when something learned interferes with the learning or performance in another situation.

Self-Efficacy

A belief that one is capable.

Self Regulation

The process of taking control of one's own learning or behavior.

Zone of Proximal Development

A key concept in Vygotsky's theory of learning which suggests that students learn best in a social context in which a more-able adult or peer teaches the student something he or she could not learn on his or her own.Question:Which of the following actions is the best example of a teacher applying the zone of proximal development theory? A. Assigning reading for the students to preview before a lesson on a new topic B. Using pretest data to develop lessons that account for students' prior knowledge C. Providing technology in class to keep students interested in a topic D. Playing a vocabulary game to help students prepare for an upcoming testCorrect Answer: BOption (B) is correct. The zone of proximal development theory suggests that the teacher should emphasize connections between what the students already know and new knowledge. Since the teacher is accessing the students' prior knowledge, she is then able to build on what they already know.

Classical and Operant Conditioning

A process of behavior modification by which a person comes to respond in the desired manner to what was once a neutral stimulus. Neutral stimulus has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus (a natural, inherent stimulus, such as the smell of food) that eventually elicits the desired response.

Students as Diverse Learners

variables affect

how individual students learn and perform

– learning style

– gender

Title IXThis part of the Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination based on gender.

– culture

– socioeconomic status

– prior knowledge and experience

– motivation

– self-confidence, self-esteem

– cognitive development

– maturity

– language

Areas of exceptionality and their potential impact on student learning

– cognitive

– auditory

– visual

– motor/physical

– speech/language

– behavioral

Legislation relating to students with exceptionalities on classroom practice


QuestionWhich of the following requires that public schools provide increased accountability measured by the administration of standardized tests? A. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act B. The No Child Left Behind Act C. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act D. The Common Core State Standards InitiativeCorrect Answer: BOption (B) is correct. Through the No Child Left Behind Act, accountability for teachers and school administrators has increased and is mainly assessed through standardized tests.
QuestionA student who has been diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) needs additional time to complete work and to take tests. Which of the following pieces of legislation is most appropriate for the school to use in implementing a plan to help the student? A. No Child Left Behind Act B. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act C. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act D. Americans with Disabilities ActCorrect Answer: COption (C) is correct. Students with ADHD are protected under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.
QuestionIncreasing the font size of a student’s reading assignment is best described as A. an environmental accommodation B. an instructional accommodation C. a lesson modification D. an assessment modificationCorrect Answer: BOption (B) is correct. An accommodation is an adjustment in teaching strategies, environment, or the assessment to content to allow students to learn a target skill at the same level as other students. By increasing the font size of a reading assignment, the teacher has made an instructional accommodation to make the content more accessible to the student without lowering the learning expectations.

– Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

The ADA is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including jobs, schools, transportation, and all public and private places that are open to the general public. The purpose of the law is to make sure that people with disabilities have the same rights and opportunities as everyone else.

– Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a law that makes available a free appropriate public education to eligible children with disabilities throughout the nation and ensures special education and related services to those children.

– Section 504, Rehabilitation Act (504)

It prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in programs that receive federal financial assistance, and set the stage for enactment of the Americans with Disabilities Act.

Student Motivation and Learning Environment

Behavioral theorists

– Watson

Founder of behaviorist theory. Rejected Freudian-based explanations - too theoretical. Little Albert - an infant that initially 'liked' a pet white rat but was conditioned by Watson to fear it by pairing it with loud clanging sounds. Also grew to fear white fuzzy objects from coats to Santa Claus.
Watson’s theories center around reward and punishment (positive and negative reinforcement though these words would be introduced by Skinner). Students are given a reward for positive behavior and academic success and a consequence for negative behavior and lack of academic progress.

– Pavlov [not on the Praxis outline]

Established the theory of Classical Conditioning in which he conducted experiments with dogs in the 1920s. His experiment showed that dogs could have a conditioned response (salivate) to a conditioned stimulus.

– Thorndike

Did experiments with animals and puzzle boxes. The animals learned to escape from the puzzle boxes for rewards (food).Developed the behavioral learning theory of connectionism which is the original S-R (stimuli & response) framework. His theory consists of three primary laws:1. Law of Effect2. Law of Readiness3. Law of Exercise
In later versions of the theory, additional concepts were added:*Belongingness*Polarity*Spread of Effect*Primacy*Recency*Intensity*Freedom*Requirement
Law of Effect Behaviors are either strengthened or weakened depending on whether they are rewarded or punished.The law basically states, "responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation". First of three primary laws in Thorndike's S-R theory of Connectionism. Law of Readiness The law basically states, "a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked". Second of three primary laws in Thorndike's S-R theory of Connectionism.Law of Exercise Repetition of a response strengthens it. Cats get better at escaping from the puzzle boxes with practice.The law basically states, "connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued". Third of three primary laws in S-R Thorndike's theory of Connectionism.
Law of BelongingnessThe law basically states, "that reward or punishment to be maximally effective must be relevant to the situation". A law that was added to Thorndike's S-R theory of Connectionism (original theory only had three laws: effect, readiness, & exercise).Law of PolarityThe law states, "learned response is most easily given in the direction in which it was formed. (ex. alphabet)". A concept that was added to Thorndike's S-R theory of Connectionism (original theory only had three laws: effect, readiness, & exercise).Law of Spread of EffectThe law states, "reward strengthens not only the response to which it belongs, but also the responses adjacent (after or before) to the rewarded response. It gives rise to a gradient effect. The effect of reward is maximal for the rewarded response. Then its effect decreases for each step that a response is removed from the rewarded one." This is a concept that was added to Thorndike's S-R theory of Connectionism (original theory only had three laws: effect, readiness, & exercise).Law of PrimacyThe law states, "the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakeable impression". This is a concept that was added to Thorndike's S-R theory of Connectionism (original theory only had three laws: effect, readiness, & exercise).Law of RecencyThe law states, "things most recently learned are best remembered, while the things learned some time ago are remembered with more difficulty". This is a concept that was added to Thorndike's S-R theory of Connectionism (original theory only had three laws: effect, readiness, & exercise).Law of IntensityThe law states, "if the stimulus (experience) is real, the more likely there is to be a change in behavior (learning)". This is a concept that was added to Thorndike's S-R theory of Connectionism (original theory only had three laws: effect, readiness, & exercise).Law of FreedomThe law states, "things freely learned are best learned" and "the greater the freedom enjoyed by the students in the class, the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by them". This is a concept that was added to Thorndike's S-R theory of Connectionism (original theory only had three laws: effect, readiness, & exercise).
Antecedent, Behavior, consequence* check who this is associated with
Thorndike’s theories center on the law of effect, which says that “when a connection between a stimulus and a response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened, and that the more the stimulus-response bond is practiced, the stronger it becomes (Law of Exercise). By teaching new information in small steps and providing quick and timely assessments for students, the teacher is using the “Law of Effect” to increase student success and understanding. Students are given a reward for positive behavior and academic success and a consequence for negative behavior and lack of academic progress.
Aria’s class is learning how to write their first and last names in cursive. Despite guidance from her teacher, and many attempts, Aria is unable to form the letters correctly and with the appropriate size and spacing. According to Edward Thorndike, Aria’s inability to write her name in cursive is explained by the law of A. readiness B. recency C. exercise D. belongingnessCorrect Answer: AOption (A) is correct. Aria is not yet physically able to write cursive, which is a lack of readiness. The law of readiness applies because when a person is mentally and physically ready to perform a certain task, the act of doing the task is satisfying.

– Maslow


– Skinner

– Erikson

Erikson’s stages place elementary age students in the industry versus inferiority stage, which says that to encourage industry, students need to feel successful and work at their level. Students are given assignments on the basis of their ability levels and provided with frequent opportunities for success.

terms related to foundational motivation theory

– self-determination

– attribution

When one constructs a causal explanation for failure or success.

– extrinsic/intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic MotivationMotivation from external sourcesIntrinsic MotivationMotivation from internal sources

– cognitive dissonance

A feeling of mental discomfort in which new information conflicts with beliefs or previously learned information.

– classic and operant conditioning

– positive and negative reinforcement

Principles and strategies for classroom management

a. How to develop classroom routines and procedures

To effectively manage a classroom, we need to leverage norms and procedures to prevent negative behavior. Positive rules that emphasize the appropriate behavior can be more effective than negative rules that emphasize unacceptable behavior. Broad rules can make the list of rules easier to remember and also more applicable. Procedures can also make use of time more efficient and through making these behaviors automatic and routine, they can prevent negative behaviors associated with downtime.

b. How to maintain accurate records

c. How to establish standards of conduct

Norms and rulesStudent involvement - students are more likely to comply if they are involvedPositive rather than negative rulesIf you want positive behavioral change you need to focus on positive messages(see research by Goldstein, Cialdini, Griskevicius, 2005; Cialdini 2005; and Cialdini, 2003). Prohibitive messages often increase the likelihood of the target behavior (Goldstein, Cialdini, Griskevicius, 2005; Cialdini 2005; and Cialdini, 2003). It is not unlike telling someone not to think of a pink elephant. Instead of using rules that use words like "don't" and "No" emphasize the types of behavior that you want to see in the classroom. Whatever you do, do not normalize an unwanted activity by broadly accusing everyone of doing it Cialdini (2005), try to present the activity as a deviation from the norm and the emphasize the positive behaviors as the norm. Behaviorism basicsBehaviorism, an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior and how to scientifically predict and alter behavior, can and should be used to inform educational practices around behavior management. ReinforcementReinforcement is a term used to define methods that make a behavior more likely either by providing a reward (positive reinforcement) or taking away an aversive stimulus (positive reinforcement).PunishmentConversely, punishment makes a behavior less likely, either by providing an adverse stimulus (positive punishment) or by taking away a positive stimulus (negative punishment). ImmediacyRules and consequences should be applied immediately for them to have an optimal effect on behavior (Allen, Witt, & Wheeless, 2006).Consistency when applying punishmentsMost teachers emphasize the importance of consistency responding to negative and positive behaviors, though researched has mixed findings and they suggest that the relationship is not simple. For violent aggressive behavior a clearly consistent and intense response is most effective (Deur and Parke, 1970) but for other situations a continuous punishment provides superfluous aversive experience (Leff, 1969).Variable ratio schedule for rewardsA variable ratio is also most effective for rewards.Rigid enforcement of rulesResearch by the OECD (2003) showed that students were less engaged in schools where rules were not enforced rigidly.Short, Simple and clearPeople have a limited working memory, and it is often estimated that most people have a limitation of 7 plus or minus 2 (Miller 1956). This should be reflected in your rules. 7 should be seen as a max, and very few of your students will be able to keep more than 9 rules in mind at any one time

d. How to arrange classroom space


e. Ways of promoting a positive learning environment

Praise students frequentlyInvolve students in decision making

Strategies for helping students develop self-motivation

a. assigning valuable tasks

b. providing frequent positive feedback

c. including students in instructional decisions

d. de-emphasizing grades

Module 2: Instructional Process

the role of district, state, and national standards and frameworks in instructional planning

a. understands the theoretical basis of standards-based education

b. knows resources for accessing district, state, and national standards and frameworks

c. understands how standards and frameworks apply to instructional planning

Question:Which of the following is the best strategy for a new teacher to use when determining instructional content? A. Treating the first year as a trial period to be improved on in future years B. Using the previous teacher's lesson plans as a foundation and adjusting them as needed C. Reviewing the curriculum standards provided by the state and school district D. Utilizing student textbooks and teacher guides to outline appropriate contentCorrect Answer: COption (C) is correct. A teacher's primary resource for appropriate content is the state-mandated and school district curriculum standards. These knowledge and skills statements provide the baseline for student mastery by subject and skill level for what is taught and learned.

Basic concepts of predominant educational Theories

Basic Concepts of Cognitivism:

  • schema
  • information processing
  • mapping
Mapping: Teachers can use this type of graphic organizer to help students see the relationships and interrelationships among concepts and new ideas.

Basic Concepts of Social Learning Theory:

  • modeling
Children learn by observing others. In a classroom setting, this may occur through modeling or learning vicariously through others' experiences. [*the following may not be tested*: One important concept from this theory is Distributed Cognition. A process in which two or more learners share their thinking as they work together to solve a problem. A person is able to learn more with another or in a group than he or she might be able to do alone.]
  • reciprocal determinism
Alfred Bandura posits that people's behavior is controlled by the individual through internal cognitive processes and external events in the environment. Example: A child may act-out due to a dislike of school. The teacher may respond by keeping the child in for recess, thereby fueling the child's disdain of school.
  • vicarious learning
vicarious learning is learning that is derived from indirect sources such as hearing or observation, rather than direct, hands-on, instruction. Observational learning is likewise learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.
QuestionA teacher who supports the theory of social learning will most likely plan instruction to include which of the following activities? A. Using think-alouds to model how to question text B. Introducing new learning activities with a KWL chart C. Having students write reflective statements at the end of lessons D. Posing Socratic questions during class discussionsCorrect Answer: AOption (A) is correct. Social learning stresses the concepts of modeling and performing to teach others.

Basic Concepts of Constructivism:

  • learning as experience
  • problem-based learning
project based learning
  • zone of proximal development
  • scaffolding
  • inquiry/discovery learning
Constructivism is a student-based learning theory that suggests learning isn't observable. Rather, it involves mental processes and occurs when students integrate new knowledge with their existing knowledge. It describes students as active and engaged learners who construct their own knowledge. It suggests that people construct or create knowledge (as opposed to absorb knowledge) based on their experiences and interactions. *Describes learning as the active construction of knowledge*Recognizes the importance of background knowledge*Views learners as innately curious*Advocates collaboration, not competition*Suggests ways to engage students so they can be successful*Student-Centered

Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that the teacher's role is to encourage students to seek answers by making connections to prior knowledge.
The basis of constructivist learning is that students build upon prior knowledge to construct new meaning. The constructivist approach encourages students to take ownership the learning process. The roles of the teacher are to facilitate interactive, discovery learning and to avoid direct instruction and passive learning.

Basic Concepts of Behaviorism:

  • conditioning
To help with classroom management, a teacher teaches students to associate certain clapping sequences and light signals with desired behaviors. The teacher’s classroom management technique is an application of which of the following learning theories? Classical ConditioningThe teacher introduces a conditioned stimulus (asking the class to quiet down while clapping three times or turning the lights on and off) and over time receives a conditioned response, which is reflected by classical conditioning.
  • intrinsic and extrinsic
intrinsic motivation is related to abstract or personal rewardsextrinsic motivation is related to concrete rewards
  • reinforcement
Makes a behavior more likely
  • punishment
Makes a behavior less likely

How scope and sequence affect instructional planning

a. defines and provides examples of scope

The breadth of content

b. defines and provides examples of sequence

The order in which content is addressed (should get progressively more complex and build logically on previous material).

c. understands the relationship between

scope and sequence and standards of learning

d. understands the role of scope and sequence in curriculum planning

How to develop observable and measurable instructional objectives in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains

a. distinguishes among the different learning domains

b. knows how to apply Bloom’s Taxonomy to the development of instructional objectives

c. knows how to describe observable behavior

d. knows how to describe measurable outcomes

Able to identify various resources for planning enrichment and remediation

a. identifies when remediation is appropriate

b. identifies when enrichment is appropriate

c. identifies a variety of resources for locating, adapting, or creating enrichment and remediation activities

See this entry on remediation: https://teachnowblog.computerart.club/module-4-unit-6-activity-2-putting-it-all-together https://www.pbisworld.com/ The Behavior Intervention Data Tracker : Which allows the teacher to document and record each time the negative behavior is seen in the classroom and what interventions were put into place. This is an extremely useful document as the teacher can present it to parents, administration and other stakeholders and use it to keep them in the loop and understand the problem, the process of dealing with it and what the level of need for support or escalation is. Functional Behavior Assessment Tool : This tool allows the teacher to gather more information about the problem, including root causes, functions and reinforcers. Behavior Contract: This document can improve student participation in interventions and hold the student accountable. With this document they can see the punishments and rewards in a very clear way and see them as a direct consequence of their actions. They claim responsibility for their actions and the consequences of those actions. Behavior management systems

Module 3: Assessment

A. Assessment and Evaluation Strategies

1. Understands the role of formal and informal

assessment in informing the instructional process

a. defines and provides uses and examples of formal and informal assessment modes

b. explains a variety of ways the results of formal and informal assessment are used to make educational decisions

2. Understands the distinctions among the different types of assessment

a. defines and provides uses and examples of formative, summative, and diagnostic assessment

QuestionWhich of the following best describes a characteristic of a summative assessment? A. It includes observations accumulated over a period of time. B. It occurs frequently during a unit of study. C. It provides scores that can be used to determine program effectiveness. D. It gives teachers opportunities to adjust strategies during instruction.Correct Answer: COption (C) is correct. Summative assessment at the classroom level is an accountability measure that can be used to determine program effectiveness.

3. Knows how to create and select an appropriate assessment format to meet instructional objectives

a. knows how to create assessments in a variety of formats

b. is able to select an assessment format to meet a specific instructional objective

4. Knows how to select from a variety of assessment tools to evaluate student performance

a. knows a variety of assessment tools, their uses, strengths, and limitations

– rubrics

Question: Prior to an activity, a teacher gives students written criteria that explain what they will need to know in order to receive a specific grade. Which of the following assessment tools is the teacher most likely using? A. Exam B. Rubric C. Portfolio D. Anecdotal notesCorrect Answer: BOption (B) is correct. Rubrics are written criteria that detail expectations of what students will need to know and be able to do in order to receive a given grade. Rubrics help instructors develop clear learning objectives for students and guide students' efforts, if provided before the activity.

– analytical checklists

– scoring guides

– anecdotal notes

– continuums

b. is able to select an assessment tool appropriate for quantifying the results of a specific assessment

5. Understands the rationale behind and the uses of students’ self and peer assessment

a. defines and provides uses and examples of student self-assessment modes

b. defines and provides uses and examples of peer assessment modes

c. explains the strengths and limitations of self and peer assessment modes

6. Knows how to use a variety of assessment

formats

a. describes and provides uses, strengths, and

limitations of a variety of assessment

formats

– essay

– selected response

– portfolio

– conference

– observation

– performance

b. is able to select an assessment format

appropriate to a specific educational

context

B. Assessment Tools

1. Understands the types and purposes of standardized tests

a. explains the uses of the different types of

standardized tests

These types of tests are a form of summative assessment that includes achievement, aptitude and ability tests.

– achievement

Achievement tests measure mastery of skills, so a teacher can use the results of the test to determine whether the student is on grade level. This type of test is a summative assessment designed to find out what a student knows or -can do- at a particular time. The most common are commercial standardized tests for summative assessment written for nationwide use and given to large groups of students under standardized conditions.

– aptitude

A type of diagnostic test designed to -predict a person's ability to learn or perform certain skills- (such as the IQ test or the SAT which measures readiness for college level studies etc.).

– ability

A type of test used to measure a student's -abilities- most commonly associated with academic success, such as the Cognitive Abilities Test (CAT) which measures a student's ability to reason in verbal, quantitative, and nonverbal areas.

b. recognizes the data provided by the different types of standardized tests

2. Understands the distinction between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced scoring

Norm Referenced AssessmentThis type of assessment compares test takers to their peers
Criterion Referenced AssessmentA type of assessment which shows how well or poorly students master tasks or material based on certain objectives or -criteria-.
Which of the following is an appropriate goal for administering a criterion-referenced test? A. Assessing student mastery of specific concepts B. Discriminating between low and high achievers C. Comparing individuals’ performances to those of a peer group D. Measuring broad skill performance in a controlled environmentCorrect Answer: AOption (A) is correct. Criterion-referenced tests are appropriate for assessing student mastery of specific concepts or skills.

For each row, select whether the assessment described is norm referenced or criterion referenced. A multiple-choice test that evaluates basic mathematics skills for the purpose of determining the students need for academic supportAssessment 1 is norm referenced. A prime example of a norm-referenced test is one that is used to determine a need for academic support. A norm-referenced test helps ascertain whether a student has acquired the skills needed to function successfully at his or her grade level. A mathematics test provided by the district twice each year that determines student mastery of state performance standards Assessment 2 is criterion referenced. Criterion-referenced tests are often used to determine whether a student has obtained the expected knowledge and skills in a certain area and whether there are any gaps in learning.
A pretest and posttest that evaluate teaching effectiveness and students’ learning progress in mathematics Assessment 3 is criterion referenced. Criterion-referenced tests are also used to evaluate the effectiveness of a course of study.


Criterion Referenced ScoresScores based on the attempt to measure each student's performance against certain objectives or a set of -criteria-. Concise, written descriptions of what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education. Students are not in competition or compared to one another. All students can pass or all can fail. Compared to driver's license exams, which require meeting a minimum passing score to pass.
Norm Referenced ScoresTypes of scores determined by -comparing- each student's performance with the performances of other students taking the same test. These are designed to rank test takers on a bell curve. Data obtained is useful for comparing the performance of individuals to the national average.

a. explains the uses of norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests

b. explains data provided by a norm-referenced and a criterion-referenced test

3. Understands terminology related to testing and scoring

a. defines and explains terms related to testing and scoring

QuestionWhich of the following statements about validity and reliability is most accurate? A. Reliability and validity are both measures of age equivalency in an assessment. B. Reliability and validity are both measures of grade equivalency in an assessment. C. Reliability measures the consistency of an assessment, and validity measures the accuracy. D. Validity measures the consistency of an assessment, and reliability measures the accuracy.Correct Answer: COption (C) is correct. Validity relates to accuracy, and reliability relates to consistency.

– validity

Validity relates to accuracy

– reliability

reliability relates to consistency.

– raw score

– scaled score

– percentile

Percentile ScoresA type of norm-referenced score which shows what percentage of students in a group had scores equivalent to or below a particular raw score.
Percentiles rank an individual’s score among the scores of a specific population. The student was ranked in the 70th percentile, meaning the student scored better than 70% of the students who took the same test.

– standard deviation

A teacher evaluates the scores students in a class achieved on a recent standardized assessment. Which of the following best describes the instructional implications of a high standard deviation in the scores? A. The teacher must differentiate instruction to meet the wide range of ability levels in the class. B. The teacher must adapt the curriculum to address the students’ high ability level. C. The teacher must provide remediation because the students are performing below grade level. D. The teacher must focus more on state-level content standards and on teaching to those standards.Correct Answer: AOption (A) is correct. Standard deviation is a measure of how spread out, or bunched together, the numbers are in some data set. Because the students' scores are so spread out, the teacher must differentiate instruction to meet their different ability levels and skills.

– mean, mode, and median

– grade-equivalent scores

Grade Equivalent ScoresAlso called age equivalent scores. Derived by converting raw test scores into grade level or age level equivalents based on the performance of a norm group. The score represent stye grade level followed by the month of the typical (median) score for students.
Makayla, a sixth-grade student, received a grade-equivalent score of 7.2 on a recent standardized reading test. Which of the following interpretations of the data is most accurate to communicate to Makayla’s parents? A. Makayla is ready to be placed in a seventh-grade reading classroom immediately. B. Makayla’s reading comprehension score is equivalent to that of a student who is seven years and two months old. C. Makayla’s overall reading ability is comparable to that of a student who is in the second month of seventh grade. D. Makayla performed better than seven out of ten students in the sixth grade.Correct Answer: COption (C) is correct. A grade-equivalent score of 7.2 means that the performance is similar to the average score of students in the second month of seventh grade.

– age-equivalent scores

4. Understands the distinction between holistic

and analytical scoring

Which of the following scenarios best describes a teacher’s use of holistic scoring? A. A teacher reads a student paper and places it into the high, middle, or low scoring group. The teacher then rereads each group of papers to assign a letter grade. B. A teacher reads a student paper and looks for the criteria on the scoring rubric. The teacher adds up the points for each criterion and assigns a single number grade to each paper. C. A teacher reads a student paper using a rubric that addresses the scoring criteria. The teacher balances the strengths and weaknesses and assigns an overall score. D. A teacher reads a student paper and assigns a score to each criterion. The teacher writes feedback on the paper about the score for each criterion.Correct Answer: COption (C) is correct. Holistic scoring is used to give students a single, overall score for an assignment as a whole. A scoring rubric is used in holistic scoring to lay out specific criteria. As the teacher reads a student’s paper, he or she balances the strengths and weaknesses among the various criteria to arrive at an overall assessment of success or the effectiveness of a paper.


Analytical scoring requires that an essay be evaluated in parts, rather than just as a whole. e.g. Assigning a B for content and an A for mechanics.
The primary purpose of an analytic scoring rubric is to evaluate specific criteria for an assignment. Analytic scoring rubrics are used to evaluate specific criteria the students must incorporate in an assignment.

a. describes holistic scoring and analytical scoring

b. identifies an educational context for each

5. Knows how to interpret assessment results and

communicate the meaning of those results to

students, parents/caregiver, and school

personnel

a. understands what scores and testing data

indicate about a student’s ability, aptitude, or performance

b. is able to explain results of assessments using language appropriate for the audience

IV. Professional Development, Leadership, and Community

1. Is aware of a variety of professional development practices and resources

a. professional literature

b. professional associations

Which of the following should a teacher do to best improve content knowledge in science? A. Participate in an online book club for teachers B. Join the National Science Teachers Association C. Attend a district-wide professional-development seminar D. Watch a video about how to differentiate instruction in scienceCorrect Answer: BOption (B) is correct. Subject-specific professional organizations provide many opportunities to learn and network.

c. workshops

d. conferences

e. learning communities

f. graduate courses

g. independent research

h. internships

i. mentors

A school establishes a mentoring program for incoming teachers. Which of the following is the primary goal of this program? A. Providing one-to-one assistance for new teachers B. Ensuring group staff-development for new teachers C. Creating a thorough growth plan for struggling new teachers D. Developing a community-relations plan for new teachersCorrect Answer: AOption (A) is correct. Mentorship has one-to-one support as its goal.
Question:Which of the following best describes the primary role of a mentor working with a new teacher? A. If students are being disruptive, the mentor takes over the class and models how to manage different types of behavior for the new teacher. B. The mentor observes the new teacher in the classroom and then meets with the teacher to discuss and reflect on the observations and plan strategies for improvement. C. The mentor reads the principal's evaluation of the new teacher and then suggests effective instructional strategies for the principal to use to support the teacher. D. As students engage in independent study work at their desks, the mentor and the new teacher circulate around the classroom and provide support to students as needed.Correct Answer: BOption (B) is correct. Mentors often support new teachers by observing them in the classroom and debriefing and reflecting with them after class. At this time, the mentor will discuss the new teacher's strengths and plan strategies to address areas for improvement.

j. study groups

2. Understands the implications of research, views, ideas, and debates on teaching practices

a. knows resources for accessing research, views, ideas, and debates on teaching practices

b. interprets data, results, and conclusions from research on teaching practices

c. is able to relate data, results, and conclusions from research and/or views,

ideas, and debates to a variety of educational situations

3. Recognizes the role of reflective practice for professional growth

a. defines the purposes of reflective practice

b. knows a variety of activities that support reflective practice

– reflective journal

Question After the first week of school, a beginning teacher has concerns about managing behavior in the classroom. Which of the following is the teacher’s best first step to address the concern? A. Make behavior modification plans for all disruptive students B. Read scholarly articles to find strategies for handling unruly behavior C. Keep a reflective journal about the types of problematic behaviors that occur D. Have a colleague observe the class and make suggestionsCorrect Answer: COption (C) is correct. Keeping a reflective journal of the types of problematic behaviors would be the teacher’s first step to address concerns about managing behavior in the classroom.

– self and peer assessment

– incident analysis

– portfolio

Compiling a Teacher's PortfolioThis reflective activity helps teachers record personal and professional growth. It can include certifications, resumes, statements of teaching philosophy, lesson plans and classroom charts, results of peer and administrator observations, and teaching awards. Also helpful for when applying for promotions or new jobs.

– peer observation

– critical friend

4. Is aware of school support personnel who assist students, teachers, and families

a. guidance counselors

b. IEP team members

Individualized Education Program (IEP) TeamParents. ...General education teacher. ...Special education teacher or special education provider. ...A representative of the school district. ...Other professional (e.g., school psychologist). ...Other relevant individuals. ...Student with a disability.

c. special education teachers

d. speech, physical, and occupational

therapists

e. library media specialists

f. teachers of the gifted and talented

g. paraeducators

A paraeducator is an individual who provides instructional or related support to students under the direction and supervision of a certified teacher

5. Understands the role of teachers and schools as educational leaders in the greater community

a. role of teachers in shaping and advocating for the profession

b. perceptions of teachers

c. partnerships with parents and family members

d. partnerships with the community

6. Knows basic strategies for developing collaborative relationships with colleagues, administrators, other school personnel, parents/caregivers, and the community to support the educational process

a. knows the elements of successful collaboration

– developing an action plan

– identifying the stakeholders

– identifying the purpose of the collaboration

– supporting effective communication

– seeking support

7. Understands the implications of major legislation and court decisions relating to students and teachers

QuestionWhich of the following requires that public schools provide increased accountability measured by the administration of standardized tests? A. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act B. The No Child Left Behind Act C. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act D. The Common Core State Standards InitiativeCorrect Answer: BOption (B) is correct. Through the No Child Left Behind Act, accountability for teachers and school administrators has increased and is mainly assessed through standardized tests.
***Has been replaced with the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), but still comes up in practice tests.
QuestionA student who has been diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) needs additional time to complete work and to take tests. Which of the following pieces of legislation is most appropriate for the school to use in implementing a plan to help the student? A. No Child Left Behind Act B. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act C. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act D. Americans with Disabilities ActCorrect Answer: COption (C) is correct. Students with ADHD are protected under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.
QuestionIncreasing the font size of a student’s reading assignment is best described as A. an environmental accommodation B. an instructional accommodation C. a lesson modification D. an assessment modificationCorrect Answer: BOption (B) is correct. An accommodation is an adjustment in teaching strategies, environment, or the assessment to content to allow students to learn a target skill at the same level as other students. By increasing the font size of a reading assignment, the teacher has made an instructional accommodation to make the content more accessible to the student without lowering the learning expectations.

a. equal access

Equal AccessThis term means that federally funded education cannot be withheld from students due to race, color or national origin.
Equal Access ActThis part of the Civil Rights Act says that any public secondary school that receives federal funding must allow equal access for extra-curricular on non-curricular student groups to meet regardless of the groups' religious, political, philosophical, or other affiliation.

b. privacy and confidentiality

FERPA Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act - parents and eligible students (18+) retain certain rights regarding their children's educational records. Right to inspect and review records, request records be corrected, call for a formal hearing and add statement to records.
Privacy and ConfidentialityThese terms refer to issues that touch on the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, which guarantees parents and students access to student records and restricts teachers from sharing student records with others.

c. First Amendment issues

First Amendment IssuesThese issues refer to students' freedom of speech, which is guaranteed as long as it is not vulgar, offensive, or generally disruptive.

d. intellectual freedom

e. mandated reporting of child neglect/abuse

Mandatory ReporterThis term refers to the fact that teachers are mandated in every state to report abuse, neglect or the suspicions of such. Teachers who report this are protected from legal retaliation or threat of termination.

f. due process

Due ProcessThis term refers to teacher and student rights to a just procedure regarding any disciplinary action. This right derives from the 14th Amendment and guarantees such protections as a fair and impartial hearing, the right to legal representation and the right to appeal.

g. liability

LiabilityThis terms means that teachers and administrators are legally responsible for the safety of students under their supervision.

h. licensing and tenure

Licensing and TenureThese terms refer to teacher requirements and safeguards regarding employment. To be licensed a teacher generally must have a bachelor's degree and no record of felony arrests or child abuse. Some schools may require competency exams for licensing. Tenure is achieved when a teacher has passed a probationary period and work review. A tenured teacher cannot be fired without cause, although he/she may be released due to staff reductions but generally not for exercising free speech, politics, mode of dress, or other items of personal expression.

i. copyright

Copyright LawsThese laws protect the rights of those who create intellectual property and must be followed by teachers.Fair Use for TeachersOne major limitation of copyright is the doctrine of fair use, stemming from section 107 of the 1976 Copyright Act (17 USC § 107). In layman's terms, the use of a copyrighted work is permitted for teaching and education, as long as it is:non-commercial in natureonly includes a non-substantial portion of the work, anddoes not significantly impede the holder's right to distribute the work.For example, using a two-page excerpt from a book that is comprised of three hundred pages is likely to be considered fair. However, excerpting two pages from a six-page publication could be considered copyright infringement. The Classroom Use ExemptionWith the passing of the TEACH Act, Congress has added an additional exemption along the lines of Fair Use. The Classroom Use Exemption allows for the performance and display of copyrighted works so long as the copy was lawfully obtained, shown for instructional purposes at a non-profit institution, and is done in a face-to-face setting. This exemption would allow a professor to show the film Citizen Kane, in its entirety, in a cinematography class--however, it would not allow the same professor to broadcast the film to each student at home nor would it allow distributing copies of the film to the students. All forms of media can fall within the classroom use exemption, be it music or fine art, but they all must meet the same standard.

https://www.rocketlawyer.com/article/copyright-and-fair-use-guidelines-for-teachers-and-schools-ps.rl


QuestionWhich of the following actions complies with the fair use provisions of copyright law? A. Allowing students to read a scanned copy of a complete textbook that the teacher found online B. Permitting several groups of students to watch a portion of a teacher-purchased movie C. Providing students with multiple copies of a short story by a contemporary author D. Copying a CD of a recorded novel and distributing the copies to studentsCorrect Answer: BOption (B) is correct. Teachers are allowed to show a film that has been purchased legally to students.----A teacher wants to use copyrighted materials in class.For each row, select whether the action is allowed or prohibited under copyright laws.A teacher makes 25 copies of a compilation of songs. Students practice the songs in class and perform them in the auditorium for parents. PROHIBITEDThe action described in the first statement is prohibited because under copyright laws, teachers may not make copies of music to be performed outside the classroom by students. 2. A teacher makes 25 copies of a short story from a book to be distributed to each student in the class. ALLOWEDThe action described in the second statement is allowed because under copyright laws, teachers may make a reasonable amount of copies from a book for the purpose of teaching within the classroom environment only. 3. A teacher copies a poem to be displayed in class. Students discuss the poem in small groups. ALLOWEDThe action described in the third statement is allowed because under copyright laws, teachers may display copyrighted material in distance learning as long as the material is relevant to the course of study, would typically have been displayed by the teacher, and is used only by those in the classroom.

Praxis written Questions

Mr. Marder indicates in his journal (Document 3) that he feels that he is constantly nagging Matt. He decides to focus on understanding Matt better as a learner.

  • Identify TWO instances during the science lesson when Matt exhibits behavior that is typical of 11 and 12 year olds.
  • For EACH instance you identify, describe a characteristic of Matt’s behavior that is typical of the social and/or emotional development of 11 and 12 year olds. Base your response on principles of human development.
According to Piaget, at age 11 students move from the concrete operational stage to formal operation stage. This means we can expect student to start reasoning abstractly. Indeed, as this is a science class there is some evidence of this, Matt also shows some evidence of analysing the group project and making suggestions based on his assessments, this shows scientific reasoning, as suggested by Piaget.
Erikson also suggested that Elementary aged students face a crisis of identity versus role confusion at adolescence and industry versus inferiority in elementary aged students. Indeed, Matt may need praise to give him the sense of competence he needs to motivate him to work hard. Also, we see that he is trying to fit into a role of a rebel who does not need to follow the teacher's authority, he is entering the crisis of searching for identity.
Similarly, Maslow highlights that basic needs must be fulfilled in order for us to strive to succeed at higher levels. Matt is preoccupied with his biological needs (using the bathroom) and probably also a sense of belonging (trying to show off to the group) and esteem (does not yet feel competent so he does not have the confidence to participate wholeheartedly). With a greater sense of competence and less insecurity, he might be able to participate more fully. Many 12 year old students will begin to struggle with esteem issues as they struggle with a changing identity due to puberty.
Kohlberg suggests that children of this age should be in his conventional stage of moral development, in which they seek the approval of others, to be a good boy/girl. Here we can see that instead of seeking approval of the teacher, he is perhaps seeking the approval of the class. In the prior stage, the preconventional stage, children act out of self interest unless a figure of authority directs them to obedience. Here it could be an instance of the child's progress being delayed or Kohlberg being over ambitious with his age ranges.

In Document 1, review Mr. Marder’s objective for Wednesday. In Document 2, Matt is struggling to work cooperatively with his group.

  • Suggest TWO strategies Mr. Marder could use to make group work more effective.
  • Explain how EACH of these strategies could be effective. Base your response on principles of planning instruction.
Reading the materials, Matt's self assessment reveals that he felt he was unable to concentrate due to the noise levels in the classroom. While this could be an excuse, it may also have some level of truth to it. Perhaps, if the environment had been quieter, he might have been able to focus better. To help achieve this goal, the teacher could use a noise meter, such as the one present on the ClassDojo app, to measure the loudness of the classroom environment, when the noise gets too high, students will be notified and they must take action or there will be a consequence.
Another issue is that it seems the teacher is not being consistent with classroom behavior management. The teacher is not following through with punishments for breaking the rules. By allowing a behavior to take place without a consequence, you are condoning it. To reduce problematic behavior, there must be a punishment (as per operant conditioning) or a system of reinforcement for positive behavior. Matt arrives late, goes to the toilet during class, forgets his supplies and much more, all without consequence. He also has a very limited contribution to the project.
Another solution would be to have students grade eachother in terms of their contribution to the project or for the teacher to assign each student a specific role or responsibility in the project for which they would be graded. Also, by having students submit individual reports he would increase student accountability and participation.


Mr. Herrera uses checklists primarily to assess the students’ progress in the subject matter. His mentor, Ms. Mariner, feels there are more valid and reliable ways to assess students’ progress.

  • Suggest TWO other forms of assessments Mr. Herrera might use to better evaluate the students’ progress in the subject matter.
  • For EACH assessment you suggest, explain the kind of information that Mr. Herrera might obtain. Base your response on principles of formal and informal assessment.
In grade 1 students are still adapting to school and its many challenges. Due to anxiousness and to avoid shame and attention, students may check of activities that they have not successfully completed. Mr. Herra should use more formal forms of assessment that will give him more insight into individual performance. Weekly tests could be one option. Weekly tests would show to what extent students understand and have retained what they have been taught. Formative assessment should be used to inform his instruction and allow him to see to what extent he needs to adapt his lessons and what is working and what is not. It will also help to point out students that need remediation.
He could also use think pair share as an alternative for this activity. This would mean that students would have to present what they learned to the class at the end. This also increase accountability for the students and makes it more likely that they will complete the activity.
Another option would be to have "mini teachers" or "police", students who walk around and help to assess the other students and the extent to which they are complying with the instructions for the activity.

Isaac’s parents are surprised to learn of Isaac’s academic functioning.

  • Propose TWO ways in which Mr. Herrera could improve his communication with parents.
  • Explain how EACH proposed strategy could improve his communication with parents. Base your response on principles of fostering positive school parent relationships to support student learning.
There appears to be a lack of communication between the teacher and the parents. Although the teacher got off to a good start by sending out a survey and postcard to parents and children, he did not follow up later on in the year. First year in elementary school introduces many new challenges for students. As a result of these challenges, it is imperative to keep in touch with parents and keep them notified of student performance, behavior and concerns.
Mr. Herra should share a contact book with parents that allows him to give them regular feedback and raise concerns as they arise. Such contact books allow two way communication and they allow problems to be dealt with as they arise.
Mr. Herra could also staple weekly tests and results from both formative and summative assessment to allow parents to keep up to date about their child's academic performance.
Alternatively, instead of using a physical book, Mr. Herra could use a service such as ClassDojo. In addition to having messaging functions, ClassDojo allows teachers to provide feedback via the use of points. This can be used as a behavior management system. Points also include information, such as "homework late" or "inattentive". This is another way to allow Mr. Herra and the parents to see trends as they arise and to keep everyone in the loop.
Furthermore, positive behavior intervention and supports (PBIS) can be used to track student behavior and interventions. Such forms address behavioral issues as well as academic issues and allow the parents to see that measures are being taken. They also give parents more insight into the processes and interventions at school.